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INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 WHY STATISTICS ARE NECESSARY 5
1.2 WHAT DOES SIGNIFICANCE MEAN? 5
1.3 SOME TERMS AND CONCEPTS 6
1.3.1 Levels of measurement of data 6
1.3.2 Other terms 6
STATISTICS 9
2.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 9
2.1.1 Measuring variability 9
2.1.2 Th e confi dence in our estimates 10
2.1.3 Graphing means 11
2.2 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 11
2.2.1 One-tailed and two-tailed tests 11
2.2.2 Diff erence or trends 12
2.3 CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TEST 12
2.3.1 Parametric and non-parametric tests 12
2.3.2 Th e binomial test 13
2.3.3 Chi-squared test 14
2.3.4 Chi-squared contingency tables 15
2.3.5 Mann-Whitney U test 16
2.3.6 Kruskal-Wallis test 17
2.3.7 Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs test 17
2.4 SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TEST (NON-PARAMETRIC DATA) 19