1.机会成本：一种资源(如资金或劳力等)用于本项目而放弃用于其他机会时，所可能损失的利益。
    Opportunity cost: The possible loss of a resource （capital or labor, etc） that consume in the project and abandon other opportunities.    2.要素丰裕度：一个国家资源的的丰度或稀缺生产的一个主要因素。因为，至少在短期内，供给的主要因素都或多或少地固定，这可以被视为确定了一个国家的贸易和其他经济变量的。
    Factor abundance: The abundance or scarcity of a primary factor of production. Because, in the short run at least, the supplies of primary factors are more or less fixed, this can be taken as given for determining much about a country's trade and other economic variables.
    3.重商主义：一个国家的繁荣取决于其资金供应，全球贸易额的是“不可改变的”。增加资本，代表国家持有的贵金属（金或银），最好是通过积极的贸易平衡，与其他国家（出口大于进口）。重商主义执政的ZF应该推动这些目标的播放保护主义的作用，在经济，鼓励出口，不鼓励进口，特别是通过利用关税。
    Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation depends upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of trade is "unchangeable." Capital, represented by bullion (gold or silver) held by the state, is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports over imports). Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy, by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs.
    4．倾销：是一种价格歧视，即出口厂商在国际市场上，以低于正常价格的价格销售商品，对进口国的某些工业造成重大损害或重大威胁，是一种不正当的贸易行为。

    Dumping：Dumping is a kind of price discrimination, export manufacturers in the international market, the price of sales of goods less than the normal price, some industries of the importing country to cause significant harm or significant threats, an unfair trade practices.

    5.国际收支平衡：指一国国际收支净额即净出口与净资本流出的差额为零
    Balance of payments: Refers to the net balance of payments of a country that is the difference between the net exports and net capital outflow is zero
    6.国际经济相互依赖的要素：①贸易②财政③商业
Elements of interdependence：①Trade②Finance③Business
    7.国际贸易常见的谬论：①贸易是“零和”的：贸易能给贸易双方带来好处②进口不好出口好：③关税和配额工作：削减进口是出口很难从而导致失业
    Common fallacies of international trade：①"Trade is zero-sum" - trade can bring benefits to both partners②Imports bad, exports good③"Tariffs and quotas save jobs" - cutting imports makes it harder to export, so other jobs are lost
    8．跌宕起伏的全球化：优点：生产率的提高速度更快国家生产时，根据比较优势全球竞争和廉价进口商品在海湾保持低价格和通货膨胀一个开放的经济体系，鼓励技术开发和创新，从国外的想法出口行业的工作付出更多的进口竞争行业比资本的自由流动，使美国获得外国投资，并保持低利率。
    Ups and downs of globalization：Advantages：Productivity increases faster when countries produce according to comparative advantage.Global competition and cheap imports keep prices low and inflation at bay.An open economy encourages technological development and innovation with ideas from abroad.Jobs in export industries pay more than those in import-competing industries.Free movement of capital gives theUS access to foreign investment and keeps interest rates low
    9. 重商主义与亚当斯密（绝对优势）的区别：根据重商主义的观点，一个国家只能获得另一个国家的牺牲和各国ZF应采取严格的控制，所有的经济活动和贸易。他们应该采取保护主义措施来刺激出口，限制进口。有些观点今天依然健在，而且甚至蓬勃发展的一种新重商主义。但根据亚当·斯密，所有国家都可以从自由贸易中获益，每个国家应采取自由放任的政策（自由贸易政策）
    Difference Between Mercantilists & Adam Smith：According to mercantilists’ view, one nation could only gain at the expense of another nation and each government should take strict control of all economic activities and trade. They should adopt protectionist measures to stimulate exports and restrict imports. Some of the views are still alive and even thriving today in a sort of neo-mercantilism.But according to Adam Smith, all nations could gain from free trade and each nation should adopt a laissez-faire policy (free trade policy).
    10.大卫·李嘉图的比较优势理论：在两国间，劳动生产率的差距并不是在任何商品上都是相等。对于处于绝对优势的国家， 应集中力量生产优势较大的商品，处于绝对劣势的国家，应集中力量生产劣势较小的商品，然后通过国际贸易，互相交换，彼此都节省了劳动，都得到了益处。比较优势理论的核心内容是“两利取重，两害取轻”。
    Theory of Comparative Advantage：Labor productivity gap between the two countries, is not in any commodity are equal. In absolute advantage, countries should focus on the production advantages of large commodity absolute disadvantage in the country should focus on disadvantage smaller production of the commodity, and through international trade, exchange, both labor savings, have been benefits. The core content of the theory of comparative advantage is to benefit both sides to take weight, take light two evils.
    11.消费者剩余：用比消费者为某商品愿意并且能够支付的最高价格更低的市场价格来购买该商品所获得的经济福利。
    Consumer Surplus: the increase in the economic well-being of consumers who are able to buy the product at a market price lower than the highest price that they are willing and able to pay for the product.
    12.供给的确定：①产品的价格以及费用②供给曲线向上倾斜③供给到市场价格的变化的响应性的数量取决于供给的斜率曲线，也就是说，供给价格弹性
    The determinations of supply:  ①Price of the products, Costs (of producing and selling)②The supply curve slopes upward③The responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in market price depends on the slope of the supply curve—that is, the price elasticity of supply
    13.生产者剩余：生产者以比他们愿意接受的最低价格更高的市场价格销售商品所获得的经济福利。
    Producer surplus ：the increase in the economic well-being of producers who are able to sell the product at a market price higher than the lowest price that would have drawn out their supply.
    14.相互需求理论：①实际交易价格取决于贸易伙伴的需求的互动②最后的贸易条件将接近国内价格比国家的进口商品的强劲需求③适用于各国平等的经济规模，这将几乎相等份额④小国与大的交易可以收到大量的贸易收益
    Theory of Reciprocal Demand：①Actual trading prices depend on the interaction of trading partners’ demands②Final terms of trade will be closer to the domestic price ratio of the nation with stronger demand for the imported good③Applies to nations of equal economic size, which will share gains nearly equally④Small nations trading with large ones can receive the bulk of the gains from trade.
    15.赫克歇尔 - 俄林要素禀赋理论:①不同国家的供应条件，尤其是资源禀赋的比较优势可以完全解释。②国家出口产品，使用在家里，这是比较丰富的输入（便宜）的进口产品，需要输入的是相对稀缺的（昂贵的）在家里。
    Factor endowment theory (Heckscher-Ohlin)：①Comparative advantage is explained entirely by different national supply conditions, especially resource endowments②Nations export products that use inputs which are relatively abundant (cheap) at home, and import products which need inputs which are relatively scarce (expensive) at home
    16.贸易和收入分配：①贸易产生一个收敛的相对价格。②相对价格的变化具有较强的影响，在这两个国家的劳动力和土地的相对收入③一个国家的丰富的因素，从贸易中获益，但一个国家的稀缺要素的所有者的拥有人就输了。
    Trade and the Distribution of Income：①Trade produces a convergence of relative prices②Changes in relative prices have strong effects on the relative earnings of labor and land in both countries③Owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but owners of a country’s scarce factors lose
    17.规模经济：是指在产出的某一范围内，平均成本随着产出的增加而递减的现象。
    Economies of Scale：or increasing returns to scale, exist if increasing expenditures on all inputs (with input prices constant) increases the output quantity by a larger percentage.
    18.为什么要限制贸易：①从长远来看，自由贸易的好处，通常全社会广为传播
②自由贸易的成本迅速的感应，通常是集中在特定的经济部门
    Why restrict trade?①Benefits of free trade come in the long term, and are usually spread widely across society②Costs of free trade are felt rapidly and are usually concentrated in specific sectors of the economy
    19.关税的类型：①从量税：每单位产品的固定货币费②从价税：作为该产品的值的百分比征收③混合税：所述的组合，往往成品，其组成成分也受到关税，进口分别征收。
    Types of tariff：①Specific tariff：Fixed monetary fee per unit of the product②Ad valorem tariff：Levied as a percentage of the value of the product③Compound tariff：A combination of the above, often levied on finished goods whose components are also subject to tariff if imported separately
    20.关税的利弊：（1）关税提出一个很好的价格，在进口国和出口国降低（2）使这些价格变动的结果：①对消费者来说，进口国消费者受到损失②生产商在出口国获利及在进口国的损失③ZF征收的关税收益收入（3）衡量和比较这些成本和收益，我们需要定义消费者和生产者剩余
    Costs and Benefits of a Tariff：（1）A tariff raises the price of a good in the importing country and lowers it in the exporting country.（2）As a result of these price changes:①Consumers lose in the importing country and gain in the exporting country②Producers gain in the importing country and lose in the exporting country③Government imposing the tariff gains revenue.(3) To measure and compare these costs and benefits, we need to define consumer and producer surplus
    21．基础关税分析：①贸易的条件是进出口价格之比②一个小国可以在不影响其贸易条件，无论多少它与世界其他地方的交易。
    Basic Tariff Analysis：①The terms of trade is the relative price of the exportable good expressed in units of the importable good②A small country is a country that cannot affect its terms of trade no matter how much it trades with the rest of the world.
    22.贸易限制的争论：①就业保护②防止廉价的外国劳动力③公平贸易 - 公平的竞争环境④保护国内的生活水平⑤均等化的生产成本⑥婴幼儿产业的保护以及政治和社会方面的原因
    Arguments for trade restrictions：①Job protection②Protect against cheap foreign labor③Fairness in trade - level playing field④Protect domestic standard of living⑤Equalization of production costs⑥Infant-industry protection&Political and social reasons
    23.进口配额（理论）：①进口配额好在是直接的并受数量的限制②它的限制通常是发放牌照给一些个人跟组织。③在某些情况下（例如糖和服装），在美国的销售权直接来自出口国的ZF。
    Import Quotas: （Theory）：①An import quota is a direct restriction on the quantity of a good that is imported. ②The restriction is usually enforced by issuing licenses to some group of individuals or firms③In some cases (e.g. sugar and apparel), the right to sell in the United States is given directly to the governments of exporting countries.
    24.进口配额与关税的福利分析：①配额和关税之间的区别是，ZF没有收到收入的配额②在进口配额成本和收益的评估，这是至关重要的，以确定谁获得租金。
    Welfare analysis of import quotas versus of that of tariffs ：①The difference between a quota and a tariff is that with a quota the government receives no revenue.②In assessing the costs and benefits of an import quota, it is crucial to determine who gets the rents
    25国内含量的含义：①国内生产产品的总价值的若干百分比的规则和要求②往往有迫使价格较低的进口包括国内成本较高的部件，或者被组装在一个成本较高的国内市场。
    Domestic content requirements：①Rules that require a certain percentage of a product’s total value to be produced domestically②Often has the effect of forcing lower-priced imports to include higher-cost domestic components or be assembled in a higher-cost domestic market
    26．补贴：①国内补贴：支付的款项导入竞争的生产商提高他们的价格高于市场价格收取②出口补贴：付款和优惠措施，出口生产商，旨在提高出口量
    Subsidies：①Domestic subsidy：Payments made to import-competing producers to raise the price they receive above the market price②Export subsidy：Payments and incentives offered to export producers intended to raise the volume of exports
27.关贸总协定的谈判
    28.发展国家的贸易：①非常依赖于发达工业国家的出口市场和进口来源地
②出口严重偏重于初级产品（农产品，原材料，燃料）和劳动力密集的生产
③占制成品出口不断增加，但主要集中在少数新兴工业化国家（如韩国，香港）
    Developing nations’ trade：①Very dependent on the developed industrial countries as export markets and source of imports②Exports are heavily weighted toward primary products (agricultural goods, raw materials, fuels) and labor-intensive manufactures③Share of manufactured exports is increasing, but mainly in a small number of newly industrialized nations (such as South Korea, Hong Kong)
29. 发展中国家问题的法律救济：①稳定物价 - 国际商品协定②普遍优惠制
③但商品协定的经验不一，应用的GSP是参差不齐（参差不齐）
    Remedies for developing nation problems：①Stabilizing commodity prices - international commodity agreements②Generalized system of preferences (GSP)③But experience with commodity agreements has been mixed, at best, and application of the GSP is spotty
    30.区域贸易安排的类型：①自由贸易区②关税联盟（比利时，荷兰，卢森堡）③共同市场（EU）④经济/货币工会
    Types of regional trade arrangements：①Free trade areas ②Customs unions (Benelux)③Common markets (EU)④Economic/monetary union
    31.区域贸易协定的影响：（1）静态效应：①贸易创造效应（消费效应，生产效果）②贸易转移效应（2）动态效果：①规模经济②更激烈的竞争③投资刺激
Effects of regional trade agreements：（1）Static effects：①Trade creation effect (consumption effect, production effect)②Trade diversion effect（2）Dynamic effects：①Economies of scale②Greater competition③Investment stimulus
    32.外国直接投资的理由：（1）需求因素：①服务于不同的当地市场②应对市场竞争（2）成本因素：①主要原料②劳动力成本③运输成本④ZF政策
    Reasons for foreign direct investment：（1）Demand factors：①Serve different local markets
②Respond to market competition（2）Cost factors：①Access to key raw materials②Labor costs③Transportation costs④Government policies
    33.国际合资企业的原因 ：①成本分摊 - R＆D资本支出②避免当地企业对外国所有权的限制（确保当地参与）
    Reasons for international JVs①Cost sharing - R&D, capital expenditures ②Avoiding restrictions on foreign ownership of local firms (ensuring local participation)
    34. 国际收支：①一个国家和世界其他地区的居民之间的国际交易的记录②国际交易的货物，服务或资产包括交流③“居民”是指企业，个人和ZF机构，包括暂时居住在国外的公民，但不包括当地的外国公司的附属公司
    Balance of Payments：①A record of international transactions between residents of one country and the rest of the world②International transactions include exchanges of goods, services or assets③“Residents” means businesses, individuals and government agencies, including citizens temporarily living abroad but excluding local subsidiaries of foreign corporations
    35.当前帐户：（1）商品和服务的平衡:①商品贸易差额②服务平衡（2）投资收入（净额）（3）单方面转移①私人转移支付②ZF转移
    Current account:(1)Goods and services balance:①Merchandise trade balance②Services balance（2）Investment income (net)（3）Unilateral transfers①Private transfer payments②Governmental transfers

    36.外汇交易的种类：①现货交易：几乎立即执行②远期交易：事先约定的协议，在未来的日期，买入或卖出货币的速度③货币互惠信贷

    Types of FX transactions：①Spot transactions - executed nearly immediately

②Forward transactions - agreement to buy or sell a currency at a date in the future, at a rate agreed in advance③Currency swaps - agreement to trade one currency for another now, and to trade currencies back again later, both at prices agreed at the beginning

    37.期货交易：事先约定的协议，在未来的日期，买入或卖出货币的速度
    Forward transactions ：agreement to buy or sell a currency at a date in the future, at a rate agreed in advance
    38.套汇：利用汇率差异，在不同的市场来赚取利润。有助于平衡全球汇率
    Exchange arbitrage： involves taking advantage of exchange rate differences in different markets to make a profit.Helps equalize exchange rates globally
    39.影响汇率的因素:（1）市场基本要素：①双边的贸易平衡②实际收入③实际利率④通货膨胀率和国内或国外产品的消费者偏好⑤生产率的变化影响生产成本⑥盈利能力和风险性的投资7产品的可用性8货币政策和财政政策9ZF的贸易政策（2）市场预期：①对未来市场的基本面消息②对未来汇率的投机性意见
    Factors influencing exchange rates：（1）Market fundamentals：①Bilateral trade balances②Real income③Real interest rates④Inflation rates&Consumer preferences for domestic or foreign products⑤Productivity changes affecting production costs⑥Profitability and riskiness of investments7Product availability8Monetary policy and fiscal policy9Government trade policy（2）Market expectations①News about future market fundamentals②Speculative opinion about future exchange rates