Introduction........................................................................................................... 1

Data analysis steps ................................................................................................ 3

Kinds of biological variables ................................................................................ 6

Probability........................................................................................................... 11

Hypothesis testing............................................................................................... 13

Random sampling ............................................................................................... 18

Exact binomial test.............................................................................................. 21

Power analysis .................................................................................................... 29

Chi-square test of goodness-of-fit....................................................................... 34

G-test of goodness-of-fit ..................................................................................... 41

Randomization test of goodness-of-fit................................................................ 47

Chi-square test of independence ......................................................................... 52

G-test of independence ....................................................................................... 58

Fisher's exact test ................................................................................................ 64

Randomization test of independence .................................................................. 69

Small numbers in chi-square and G-tests............................................................ 73

Repeated G-tests of goodness-of-fit.................................................................... 77

Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test............................................................................ 81

Central tendency ................................................................................................. 88

Dispersion ........................................................................................................... 95

Standard error...................................................................................................... 99

Confidence limits .............................................................................................. 104

Student's t-test ................................................................................................... 110

Introduction to one-way anova ......................................................................... 115

Model I vs. Model II anova............................................................................... 119

Testing homogeneity of means ......................................................................... 122

Planned comparisons among means ................................................................. 128

Unplanned comparisons among means............................................................. 132

Estimating added variance components............................................................ 137

Normality .......................................................................................................... 141

Homoscedasticity.............................................................................................. 145

Data transformations......................................................................................... 148

Kruskal-Wallis test............................................................................................ 153

Nested anova..................................................................................................... 161

Two-way anova................................................................................................. 169

Paired t-test ....................................................................................................... 176

Wilcoxon signed-rank test ................................................................................ 181

Sign test............................................................................................................. 185

Linear regression and correlation...................................................................... 190

Spearman rank correlation ................................................................................ 202

Polynomial regression....................................................................................... 205

Analysis of covariance...................................................................................... 211

Multiple regression ........................................................................................... 217

Logistic regression ............................................................................................ 224

Multiple comparisons........................................................................................ 233

Meta-analysis .................................................................................................... 237