An Integrated View on Power and Other Energy Markets
1 Energy Markets 1 1.1 The oil market 4 1.1.1 Consumption, production and reserves 4 1.1.2 Crude oil trading 7 1.1.3 Refined oil products 8 1.2 The natural gas market 9 1.2.1 Consumption, production and reserves 10 1.2.2 Natural gas trading 12 1.2.3 Price formulas with oil indexation 14 1.2.4 Liquefied natural gas 15 1.3 The coal market 16 1.3.1 Consumption, production and reserves 17 1.3.2 Coal trading 18 1.3.3 Freight 22 1.3.4 Coal subsidies in Germany: BAFA-indexed prices 23 1.4 The electricity market 23 1.4.1 Consumption and production 23 1.4.2 Electricity trading 27 1.4.3 Products in the electricity markets 28 1.4.4 Energy exchanges 33 1.5 The emissions market 37 1.5.1 Kyoto Protocol 37 1.5.2 EU emissions trading scheme 39 1.5.3 Flexible mechanisms 42
1.5.4 Products and market places 44 1.5.5 Emissions trading in North America 46
2 Energy Derivatives 47 2.1 Forwards, futures and swaps 48 2.1.1 Forward contracts 48 2.1.2 Futures contracts 51 2.1.3 Swaps 52 2.2 “Plain vanilla” options 53 2.2.1 The put–call parity and option strategies 53 2.2.2 Black’s futures price model 55 2.2.3 Option pricing formulas 55 2.2.4 Hedging options: the “Greeks” 57 2.2.5 Implied volatilities and the “volatility smile” 62 2.2.6 Swaptions 64 2.3 American and Asian options 66 2.3.1 American options 66 2.3.2 Asian options 66 2.4 Commodity bonds and loans 69 2.5 Multi-underlying options 69 2.5.1 Basket options 70 2.5.2 Spread options 72 2.5.3 Quanto and composite options 73 2.6 Spot price options 76 2.6.1 Pricing spot price options 77 2.6.2 Caps and floors 78 2.6.3 Swing options 80 2.6.4 Virtual storage 83
3 Commodity Price Models 87 3.1 Forward curves and the market price of risk 88 3.1.1 Investment assets 89 3.1.2 Consumption assets and convenience yield 89 3.1.3 Contango, backwardation and seasonality 91 3.1.4 The market price of risk 91 3.1.5 Derivatives pricing and the risk-neutral measure 92 3.2 Commodity spot price models 95 3.2.1 Geometric Brownian motion 95 3.2.2 The one-factor Schwartz model 100 3.2.3 The Schwartz–Smith model 103 3.3 Stochastic forward curve models 108 3.3.1 One-factor forward curve models 109 3.3.2 A two-factor forward curve model 111 3.3.3 A multi-factor exponential model 112
3.4 Electricity price models 113 3.4.1 The hourly forward curve 114 3.4.2 The SMaPS model 117 3.4.3 Regime-switching model 120 3.5 Multi-commodity models 125 3.5.1 Regression analysis 125 3.5.2 Correlation analysis 128 3.5.3 Cointegration 128 3.5.4 Model building 130
4 Fundamental Market Models 131 4.1 Fundamental price drivers in electricity markets 132 4.1.1 Demand side 132 4.1.2 Supply side 136 4.1.3 Interconnections 143 4.2 Economic power plant dispatch 143 4.2.1 Thermal power plants 145 4.2.2 Hydro power plants 151 4.2.3 Optimisation methods 155 4.3 Methodological approaches 166 4.3.1 Merit order curve 166 4.3.2 Optimisation models 178 4.3.3 System dynamics 184 4.3.4 Game theory 186 4.4 Relevant system information for electricity market modelling 196 4.4.1 Demand side 196 4.4.2 Supply side 197 4.4.3 Transmission system 200 4.4.4 Historical data for backtesting 201 4.4.5 Information sources 201 4.5 Application of electricity market models 202 4.6 Gas market models 204 4.6.1 Demand side 205 4.6.2 Supply side 206 4.6.3 Transport 208 4.6.4 Storage 210 4.6.5 Portfolio optimisation 212 4.6.6 Formulation of the market model 212 4.6.7 Application of gas market models 215 4.7 Market models for oil, coal, and CO2 markets 215
5 Electricity Retail Products 217 5.1 Interaction of wholesale and retail markets 217 5.2 Retail products 220 5.2.1 Common full service contracts 220 5.2.2 Indexed contracts 221
5.2.3 Partial delivery contracts 222 5.2.4 Portfolio management 223 5.2.5 Supplementary products 224 5.3 Sourcing 225 5.3.1 Business-to-business (B2B) 226 5.3.2 Business-to-consumer (B2C) 227 5.3.3 Small accounts 227 5.3.4 Municipalities and reseller 228 5.4 Load forecasting 228 5.5 Risk premium 230 5.5.1 Price validity period 231 5.5.2 Balancing power 232 5.5.3 Credit risk 235 5.5.4 Price–volume correlation 235 5.5.5 Strict risk premiums 237 5.5.6 Hourly price profile risk 239 5.5.7 Volume risk 240 5.5.8 Operational risk 240 5.5.9 Risk premium summary 241
6 Risk Management 243 6.1 Market price exposure 243 6.1.1 Delta position 244 6.1.2 Variance minimising hedging 249 6.2 Value-at-Risk and further risk measures 250 6.2.1 Definition of Value-at-Risk 250 6.2.2 Parameters of the Value-at-Risk measure 252 6.2.3 Computation methods 253 6.2.4 Liquidity-adjusted Value-at-Risk 258 6.2.5 Estimating volatilities and correlations 261 6.2.6 Backtesting 263 6.2.7 Further risk measures 264 6.3 Credit risk 265 6.3.1 Legal risk 266 6.3.2 Quantifying credit risk 267 6.3.3 Credit rating 269