LIST OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS 8
ABSTRACT 9
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 11
CHAPTER ONE: General Introduction, Aims and Scope of this Thesis.
1.1 Background to the Thesis. 12
1.2 General Introduction and Historiography. 14
1.3 Clinical Testing of Novel Drugs. 26
1.4 Sources and Thesis Outline. 34
CHAPTER TWO: The Origins of the Pharmaceutical Industry.
2.1 The Growth of the Pharmaceutical Industry in the Nineteenth
Century.
40
2.2 Evolution from Small Pharmacy Firms in America. 43
2.3 Germany and the Synthetic Model from the 1860’s. 48
2.4 Ehrlich: Collaboration, Structureactivity
Tests, Biological
Standardisation, and Clinical Trials.
55
2.5 The Scope of Chemical Research in German Pharmaceutical
Firms.
60
2.6 Failure of Britain and Other Countries to Develop Synthetic
Drugs.
63
2.7 Factors Inhibiting the Development of British Firms.
2.7.1 Introduction. 67
2.7.2 The Lack of Practically Trained British Chemists and Chemical
Engineers.
6

2.7.3 Patent Protection. 73
2.7.4 Alcohol Supplies and Duty. 74
2.8 The Extent of Reliance on Germany for Pharmaceuticals and
Especially Synthetics.
75
2.9 Concluding Remarks. 78
CHAPTER THREE: Burroughs Wellcome: British Origins of
Collaborative Research.
3.1 Introduction. 79
3.2 The Establishment of Burroughs Wellcome (1880). 81
3.3 Chemical Laboratories for Research and Chemical Works for
Manufacturing.
99
3.4 The Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories up to 1901. 109
3.5 Interactions Between the Burroughs Wellcome Laboratories and
Works after 1901.
114
3.6 Conclusions: The Impact of the Laboratories. 130
CHAPTER FOUR: War and the Establishment of a British Synthetic
Drug Industry.
4.1 Introduction: The Reliance on German Drugs and Chemicals. 137
4.2 Government Responses to the Conditions of War and Drug
Shortages.
141
4.3 Which Drugs were Required and Could they be Manufactured in
Britain?
144
4.4 Calls for Further Government Intervention. 150
4.5 British Production of Salvarsan; Medical Research Committee
(MRC) Testing of Quality.
157
4.6 The MRC and the First Salvarsan Committee. 163
4.7 Technology Transfer from Burroughs Wellcome to Boots and
May & Baker.
167
4.8 Production of Further Synthetic Drugs and Alkaloids in Britain. 175