A Tale of Two  Cultures
Contents
Preface  Vll
1. Introduction
2. Mathematical Prelude:  A  Selective  Introduction  to Logic and Set Theory for Social  Scientists
I. CAUSAL MODELS AND INFERENCE  
3. Causes-of-Eff ects versus Eff ects-of-Causes
4.  Causal Models
5. Asymmetry
6. Hume's Two Defi nitions of Cause
II. WITHIN-CASE ANALYSIS   
7. Within-Case versus Cross-Case  Causal Analysis
8. Causal Mechanisms and Process Tracing
9.  Counterfactuals
Ill. CONCEPTS AND MEASUREMENT     
10. Concepts:  Definitions,  Indicators,  and Error
11. Meaning and  Measurement
12. Semantics, Statistics,  and Data Transformations
13. Conceptual Opposites and Typologies
  IV.  RESEARCH  DESIGN AND GENERALIZATION   
14.  Case Selection and Hypothesis Testing
15.  Generalizations
16.  Scope
17.  Conclusion
Appendix
Name Index
Subject Index
This  book  analyzes  quantitative  and  qualitative  research  in  the  social  sci-
ences  as  separate  cultures.  We  arrived  at  this  "two  cultures"  view  in  the
course of carrying out teaching and research over the last decade. We repeat-
edly discovered ways  in  which qualitative and quantitative researchers  vary
in their methodological orientations and research practices. We also observed
misunderstandings  and  constrained  communication  among  qualitative  and
quantitative researchers.  As  we tried to make sense of these facts, it became
clear to us that the qualitative and quantitative traditions exhibit all the traits
of separate cultures,  including diff erent norms,  practices,  and tool kits.
Our  goal  in  writing  this  book  is  to  increase  scholarly  understanding  of
the  ways  in  which  these  cultures  are  diff erent  as  well  as  the  rationales
behind  those  differences.  In  order  to  do  this,  we  cover  a  large  range  of
methodological  topics.  These  topics  concern  key  research  design  and  data
analysis  questions  that  nearly  all  social  scientists  must  face.  Many  of  the
topics  covered  here  are  not  addressed  in  research  methods  textbooks  and
cannot be found together in any convenient book on methodology, qualitative
or  quantitative.  Hence,  one  way  to  read  and  use  this  volume  is  as  a  guide
to  the  range  of  questions  that  any  social  scientist  might  consider  when
designing and carrying out  research.
We fi rst learned about each other's research while teaching at the Institute
for  Qualitative  and  Multi-Method  Research,  and  we  would  like  to  express
our  gratitude  to  the  many  students  who  attended  this  Institute  and  gave  us
feedback on our two cultures argument over the years. We owe the Institute's
leader,  Colin  Elman,  special  thanks  for  making  room  for  our  work  in  the
annual program. We are also grateful to the Organized Section on Qualitative
and  Multi-Method Research  of the American  Political  Science  Association,
which  provided  newsletter  and  conference  outlets for early  draft s  of several
chapters.



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