(2) 简洁 (Brevity)。题名需用词简短、明了,以最少的文字概括尽可能多的内容。题名最好不超过10 ~ 12个单词,或100个英文字符(含空格和标点),如若能用一行文字表达,就尽量不要用2 行(超过2行有可能会削弱读者的印象)。在内容层次很多的情况下,如果难以简短化,最好采用主、副题名相结合的方法,如:Importance of replication in microarray gene expression studies: statistical methods and evidence from repetitive CDNA hybridizations (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2000, 97(18): 9834 ~ 9839),其中的副题名起补充、阐明作用,可起到很好的效果。
(3) 清楚(Clarity)。题名要清晰地反映文章的具体内容和特色, 明确表明研究工作的独到之处,力求简洁有效、重点突出。为表达直接、清楚,以便引起读者的注意,应尽可能地将表达核心内容的主题词放在题名开头。如The effectiveness of vaccination against in healthy, working adults (N Engl J Med,1995,333: 889-893)中,如果作者用关键词vaccination作为题名的开头,读者可能会误认为这是一篇方法性文章:How to vaccinate this population? 相反,用effectiveness作为题名中第一个主题词,就直接指明了研究问题:Is vaccination in this population effective?题名中应慎重使用缩略语。尤其对于可有多个解释的缩略语,应严加限制,必要时应在括号中注明全称。对那些全称较长,缩写后已得到科技界公认的,才可使用。为方便二次检索,题名中应避免使用化学式、上下角标、特殊符号(数字符号、希腊字母等)、公式、不常用的专业术语和非英语词汇(包括拉丁语)等。
1.2 题名的句法结构
题名通常由名词性短语构成,如果出现动词,多为分词或动名词形式。由于陈述句易使题名具有判断式的语意,同时一般也显得不简洁,因此,大部分编辑和学者都认为题名不应由陈述句构成。由于题名比句子简短,并且无需主、谓、宾,因此词序就也变得尤为重要。特别是如果词语间的修饰关系使用不当,就会影响读者正确理解题名的真实含意。例如:Isolation of antigens from monkeys using complement-fixation techniques. 可使人误解为“猴子使用了补体结合技术”。应改为:Using complement-fixation techniques in isolation of antigens from monkeys.即“用补体结合技术从猴体分离抗体”。
(5) 适当地使用“I”,“We”或“Our”,以明确地指示作者本人的工作,如:最好使用“We conducted this study to determine whether...”,而不使用“This study was conducted to determine whether...”。 叙述前人工作的欠缺以强调自己研究的创新时,应慎重且留有余地。可采用类似如下的表达:To the author's knowledge...;There is little information available in literature about...;Until recently, there is some lack of knowledge about...等等。
3.2 写作要点与时态运用
(1) 叙述有关现象或普遍事实时,句子的主要动词多使用现在时。如:“little is known about X”或“little literature is available on X”。
(2) 描述特定研究领域中最近的某种趋势,或者强调表示某些“最近”发生的事件对现在的影响时,常采用现在完成时。如:“few studies have been done on X”或“little attention has been devoted to X”
(3) 在阐述作者本人研究目的的句子中应有类似This paper, The experiment reported here等词,以表示所涉及的内容是作者的工作,而不是指其他学者过去的研究。例如:"In summary, previous methods are all extremely inefficient. Hence a new approach is developed to process the data more efficiently.”就容易使读者产生误解,其中的第二句应修改为:“In this paper, a new approach will be developed to process the data more efficiently.” 或者,“This paper will present (presents) a new approach that process the data more efficiently.”
(3) 力求语法正确、描述准确。由于材料和方法部分通常需要描述很多的内容,因此通常需要采用很简洁的语言,故使用精确的英语描述材料和方法是十分重要的。需要注意的方面通常有:
(a)不要遗漏动作的执行者如:“To determine its respiratory quotient, the organism was...”显然,the organism不能来determine?又如:“Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further interest.”显然,the bacteria不会来completed the study.
(b)在简洁表达的同时要注意内容方面的逻辑性如:“Blood samples were taken from 48 informed and consenting patients...the subjects ranged in age from 6 months to 22 years”,其中的语法没有错误,但6 months的婴儿能表达informed consent?
(c)如果有多种可供选择的方法能采用,在引用文献时提及一下具体的方法如:“cells were broken by as previously described”不够清楚,应改为:“cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described”.
4.2 时态与语态的运用
(1) 若描述的内容为不受时间影响的事实:一般现在时。如: A twin-lens reflex camera is actually a combination of two separate camera boxes.
(2) 若描述的内容为特定、过去的行为或事件,则采用过去式。如:The work was carried out on the Imperial College gas atomizer, which has been described in detail elsewhere.
(3) 方法章节的焦点在于描述实验中所进行的每个步骤以及所采用的材料,由于所涉及的行为与材料是讨论的焦点,而且读者已知道进行这些行为和采用这些材料的人就是作者自己,因而一般都习惯采用被动语态。例如:优:The samples were immersed in an ultrasonic bath for 3 minutes in acetone followed by 10minutes in distilled water. 劣:We immersed the samples in an ultrasonic bath for 3 minutes in acetone followed by 10 minutes in distilled water.
(4) 如果涉及表达作者的观点或看法,则应采用主动语态,如下:For the second trial, the apparatus was covered by a sheet of plastic. We believed this modification would reduce the amount of scattering. 优:For the second trial, the apparatus was covered by a sheet of plastic to reduce the amount of scattering. 劣:For the second trial, the apparatus was covered by a sheet of plastic. It was believed that this modification would reduce the amount of scattering.
(5) 文字表达应准确、简洁、清楚。避免使用冗长的词汇或句子来介绍或解释图表。为简洁、清楚起见,不要把图表的序号作为段落的主题句,应在句子中指出图表所揭示的结论,并把图表的序号放入括号中。例如“Figure 1 shows the relationship between A and B”不如“A was Significantly higher than B at all time points hecked (Figure 1)”.又如,“It is clearly shown in Table 1 that nocillin inhibited the growth of N. gonorrhoeae.”不发“Nocillin inhibited the growth of N. gonorrhoeae (Table 1).”
5.2 时态的运用
(1) 即指出结果在哪些图表中列出,常用一般现在时。如:Figure 2 shows the variation in the temperature of the samples over time.
(2) 叙述或总结研究结果的内容为关于过去的事实,所以通常采用过去时。如:After flights of less than two hours, 11% of the army pilots and 33% of the civilian pilots reported back pain.
(3) 对研究结果进行说明或由其得出一般性推论时,多用现在时。如:The higher incidence of back pain in civilian pilots may be due to their greater accumulated flying time.
(4) 不同结果之间或实验数据与理论模型之间进行比较时,多采一般现在时(这种比较关系多为不受时间影响的逻辑上的事实)。如:These results agree well with the findings of Smith, et al.
(3) 观点或结论的表述要清楚、明确。尽可能清楚地指出作者的观点或结论,并解释其支持还是反对早先的工作。结束讨论时,避免使用诸如“Future studies are needed.”之类苍白无力的句子。
(4) 对结果科学意义和实际应用效果的表达要实事求是,适当留有余地。避免使用“For the first time”等类似的优先权声明。在讨论中应选择适当的词汇来区分推测与事实。例如,可选用“prove”,“demonstrate”等表示作者坚信观点的真实性;选用“show”,“indicate”,“found”等表示作者对问题的答案有某些不确定性;选用“imply”,“suggest”等表示推测;或者选用情态动词“can”,“will”, “should”,“probably”,“may”,“could”,“possibly”等来表示论点的确定性程度。
6.3 时态的运用
(1) 回顾研究目的时,通常使用过去时。如:In this study, the effects of two different learning methods were investigated.
(2) 如果作者认为所概述结果的有效性只是针对本次特定的研究,需用过去时;相反,如果具有普遍的意义,则用现在时。如: In the first series of trials, the experimental values were all lower than the theoretical predictions. The experimental and theoretical values for the yields agree well.
(3) 阐述由结果得出的推论时,通常使用现在时。使用现在时的理由作者得出的是具普遍有效的结论或推论(而不只是在讨论自己的研究结果),并且结果与结论或推论之间的逻辑关系为不受时间影响的事实。如:The data reported here suggest (These findings support the hypothesis, Our data provide evidence) that the reaction rate may be determined by the amount of oxygen available.
三、英文科研文章常见语言技巧 如何指出当前研究的不足以及有目的地引导出自己的研究的重要性
通常在叙述了前人成果之后,用However来引导不足,比如:
However, little information..
little attention...
little work...
little data
little research
or few studies
few investigations...
few researchers...
few attempts...
or no
none of these studies
has (have) been less
done on ...
focused on
attempted to
conducted
investigated
studied
(with respect to)
Previous research (studies, records) has (have)
failed to consider
ignored
misinterpreted
neglected to
overestimated, underestimated
misleaded
thus, these previus results are
inconclisive, misleading, unsatisfactory, questionable, controversial..
Uncertainties (discrepancies) still exist ...
这种引导一般提出一种新方法,或者一种新方向。如果研究的方法以及方向和前人一样,可以通过下面的方式强调自己工作的作用:
However, data is still scarce
rare
less accurate
there is still dearth of
We need to
aim to
have to
provide more documents
data
records
studies
increase the dataset
Further studies are still necessary...
essential...
为了强调自己研究的重要性,一般还要在However之前介绍自己研究问题的反方面,另一方面等等,比如:
1)时间问题:如果你研究的问题时间上比较新,你就可以大量提及对时间较老的问题的研究及重要性,然后说(However),对时间尺度比较新的问题研究不足
5)提出自己的假设来验证:如果自己的研究完全是新的,没有前人的工作进行对比,在这种情况下,你可以自信地说,根据提出的过程,存在这种可能的结果,本文就是要证实这种结果。
We aim to test the feasibility (reliability) of the ...
It is hoped that the qutestion will be resolved (fall away) with our proposed
method (approach).
提出自己的观点
We aim to
This paper reports on
provides results
extends the method..
focus on
The purpose of this paper is to
Furthermore, Moreover, In addition,, we will also discuss...
圈定自己的研究范围:前言的另外一个作用就是告诉读者包括(reviewer)你的文章主要研究内容。如果处理不好,reviewer会提出严厉的建议,比如你没有考虑某种可能性,某种研究手段等等。为了减少这种争论,在前言的结尾你就要明确提出本文研究的范围:
1)时间尺度问题:如果你的问题涉及比较长的时序,你可以明确地提出本文只关心这一时间范围的问题。
We preliminarily focus on the older (younger)...
或者有两种时间尺度的问题 (long-term and short term),你可以说两者都重要,但是本文只涉及其中一种。
2) 研究区域的问题:和时间问题一样,明确提出你只关心这一地区,最后的圆场,在前言的最后,还可以总结性地提出,这一研究对其它研究的帮助。或者说,further studies on ... will be summarized in our nextstudy (or elsewhere)总之,其目的就是让读者把思路集中到你要讨论的问题上来。减少争论(arguments).关于词汇以及常用结构,要经常总结,多读多模仿才能融会贯通。
怎样提出观点:在提出自己的观点时,采取什么样的策略很重要。不合适的句子通常会遭到reviewer的置疑。
a)如果观点不是这篇文章最新提出的,通常要用We confirm that...
b)对于自己很自信的观点,可用We believe that...
c)在更通常的情况下,由数据推断出一定的结论,用Results indicate, infer, suggest, imply that...
d) 在及其特别的情况才可以用We put forward (discover, observe..) .. "for the first time".
来强调自己的创新。
e) 如果自己对所提出的观点不完全肯定,可用
We tentatively put forward (interrprete this to..) /
The results may be due to (caused by) attributed to rsulted from./.
This is probably a consequence of It seems that .. can account for (interpret) this../
It is pisible that it stem from...
连接词与逻辑:写英文论文最常见的一个毛病就是文章的逻辑不清楚。解决的方法有: 1)句子上下要有连贯:不能让句子之间独立,常见的连接词语有, However, also, in addition, consequently, afterwards, moreover, Furthermore, further, although, unlike, in contrast, Similarly, Unfortunately, alternatively, parallel results, In order to, despite, For example, Compared with other results, thus, therefore...用好这些连接词,能够使观点表达得有层次,更加明确。
比如,如果叙述有时间顺序的事件或者文献,最早的文献可用AA advocated it for the first time.接下来,可用Then BB further demonstrated that..再接下来,可用Afterwards, CC..如果还有,可用More recent studies by DD..如果叙述两种观点,要把它们截然分开
AA pput forward that...
In contrast, BB believe
or Unlike AA, BB suggest
or On the contrary (表明前面的观点错误,如果只是表明两种对立的观点,用in contrast), BB.. 如果两种观点相近,可用
AA suggest
Similarily, alternatively, BB..
or Also, BB
or BB allso does ..
表示因果或者前后关系,可用Consequently, therefore, as a result,表明递进关系,可用furthermore, further, moreover, in addition,当写完一段英文,最好首先检查一下是否较好地应用了这些连接词。
2) 段落的整体逻辑:经常我们要叙述一个问题的几个方面。这种情况下,一定要注意逻辑结构。首先第一段要明确告诉读者你要讨论几个部份
...Therefore, there are three aspects of this problen have to be addressed.
The first questuon involves...
The second problem relates to
The thrid aspect deals with...上面的例子可以清晰地把观点逐层叙述。或者可以直接用First, Second, Third...Finally,.. 当然,Furthermore, in addition等可以用来补充说明。
3) 讨论部份的整体结构:小标题是比较好的方法把要讨论的问题分为几个片段。一般第一个片段指出文章最为重要的数据与结论。补充说明的部份可以放在最后一个片段。一定要明白文章的读者会分为多个档次。文章除了本专业的专业人士读懂以外,一定要想办法能让更多的外专业人读懂。所以可以把讨论部份分为两部份,一部份提出观点,另一部份详细介绍过程以及论述的依据。这样专业外的人士可以了解文章的主要观点,比较专业的讨论他可以把它当成黑箱子,而这一部份本专业人士可以进一步研究。为了使文章清楚,第一次提出概念时,最好加以个括弧,给出较为详细的解释。如果文章用了很多的Abbreviation, 两种方法加以解决: a) 在文章最好加上个Appendix,把所有Abreviation列表 b) 在不同的页面上,不时地给出Abbreciation的含义,用来提醒读者。 总之,写文章的目的是要让读者读懂,读得清晰,并且采取各种措施方便于读者。一定要注意绝对不能全面否定前人的成果,即使在你看来前人的结论完全不对。这是前人工作最起码的尊重,英文叫做给别人的工作credits。所以文章不要出现非常negative的评价,比如Their results are wrong, very questionable, have no commensence, etc.遇到这类情况,可以婉转地提出:
Their studies may be more reasonable if they had considered this situation.
Their results could be better convinced if they ...
Their conclusion may remain some uncertanties.
讨论部份还包括什么内容?
1. 主要数据特征的总结
2. 主要结论以及与前人观点的对比
3. 本文的不足
最后一点,在一般作者看来不可取。事实上给出文章的不足恰恰是保护自己文章的重要手段。如果刻意隐藏文章的漏洞,觉得别人看不出来,是非常不明智的。所谓不足,包括以下内容:
1. 研究的问题有点片面
讨论时一定要说,
It should be noted that this study has examined only..
We concentrate (focus) on only...
We have to point out that we do not..
Some limitations of this study are...
2. 结论有些不足
The results do not imply,
The results can not be used to determine /be taken as evidence of
Unfortunately, we can not determien this from this data
Our results are lack of ...
但是,在指出这些不足之后,随后一定要再一次加强本文的重要性以及可能采取的手段来解决这些不足,为别人或者自己的下一步研究打下伏笔。
Notwithstading its limitation, this tudy does suggest..
However, these problems culd be solved if we consdier
Despite its preliminary character, this study can clearly indicate..
用中文来说,这一部份是左右逢源。把审稿人想到的问题提前给一个交代,同时表明你已经在思考这些问题,但是由于文章长度,试验进度或者试验手段的制约,暂时不能回答这些问题。但是,这些通过你的一些建议,这些问题在将来的研究中游可能实现。