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                               Contents
                Applied Statistics and SAS Software
Chapter 1 A SAS Tutorial 1
              Introduction 1
              Computing with SAS Software: An Illustrative Example 2
              Enhancing the Program 7
              SAS Procedures 10
              Overview of the SAS Data Step 13
              synt& of SAS Procedures 13
              Comment Statements 15
              References 18
Chapter 2 Describing Data 22
              Introduction 22
             Describing Data 22
              More Descriptive Statistics 26
              Descriptive Statistics Broken Down by Subgroups 32
             Frequency Distributio~ls 34
              Bar Graphs 35
              Plotting Data 42
              Creating Summary Data Sets with PROC MEANS and PROC UNIVARIAE 45
              Outputting Statistics Other Than Means 53
             Creating a Summary Data Set Containing a Median 54
Chapter 3 Analyzing Categorical Data 58
              Introduction 58
              Questionnaire Design and Analysis 59
              Adding Variable Labels 63
              Adding "Value Labels" (Formats) 66
              Recoding Data 70
              Using a Format to Recode a Variable 73
             Two-way Frequency Tables 75
              A Short-cut Way of Requesting Multiple Tables 78
      Contents
 viii
              1. Computing Chi-square from Frequency Counts 79
              J. A Useful Program for Multple Chi-square Tables 80
             K. McNemar'sTest for Paired Data 81
             L. Odds Ratios 83
            M. Relative Risk 86
             N. Chi-square Test for Trend 88
            0 . Mantel-Haenszel Chi-square for Stratified Tables and Meta Analysis 90
             I? "Check All ?hat Apply" Questions 92
Chapter 4 Working with Date and Longitudinal Data 101
            A.    Introduction 101
            B.    Processing Date Variables 101
            C.    Longitudinal Data 106
            D.    Most Recent (or Last) Visit per Patient 109
            E.    Computing Frequencies on Longitudinal Data Sets 110
Chapter 5 Correlation and Regression 115
            A.    Introduction 115
            B.    Correlation 115
            C.    Significance of a Correlation Coefficient 118
            D.   How to Interpret a Correlation Coefficient 119
            E.   Partial Correlations 120
            F.    Linear Regression 121
            G.    Partitioning the Total Sum of Squares 124
            H.   Plotting the Points on the Regression Line 125
             1.   Rotting Residuals and Confidence Limits 126
             J.  Adding a Quadratic Term to the Regression Equation   128
            K.   Transforming Data 129
            L.   Computing Within-subject Slopes 133
Chapter 6 T-tests and Nonparametric Comparisons 138
                 Introduction 138
           A.
            B.   T-test: Testing Differences between ' h o Means 138
            C.   Random Assignment of Subjects 141
           D.    %o Independent Samples: Distribution Free Tests 143
                 One-tailed versus ltvo-tailed Tests 145
           E.
            F.   Paired T-tests (Related Samples) 146
Chapter 7 Analysis of Variance 150
           A.    Introduction 150
            B.   One-way Analysis of Variance 150
          C.    Computing Contrasts 158
          D.    Analysis of Variance: Two Independent Variables 159
                Interpreting Significant Interactions 163
          E.
          F.    N-way Factorial Designs 170
          G.    Unbalanced Designs: PROC CLM 171
          H.    Analysis of Covariance 174
          Repeated Measures Deslgns 181
Chapter 8
          A.    Introduction 181
          B.    One-factor Experiments 182
                Using the REPEATED Statement of P R O ~ A N O V A 168
          C.
                -0-factor Experiments with a Repeated Measure on One Factor 189
          D.
          E.    Two-factor Experiments with Repeated Measures on Both Factors 197
          F.    Three-factor Experiments with a Repeated Measure on the Last
                Factor 202
          G. Three-factor Experiments with Repeated Measures o n m o Factors 209
Chapter 9 Multiple-Regression Analysis 221
          A.    Introduction 221
          B.    Designed Regression 226
          C.    Nonexperimental Regression 226
          D.    Stepwise and Other Variable Selection Methods 228
          E.    Creating and Using Dummy Variables 234
          F.    Logistic Regression 235
Chapter 10 Factor Analysis       250
           A.     Introduction 250
            B.    Qpes of Factor Analysis 250
            C.    Principal Components Analysis 251
            D.    Oblique Rotations 258
            E.    Using Communalities Other Than One 259
             F.   How to Reverse Item Scores 262
Chapter 11 Psychometrics         265
           A.     Introduction 265
             B.   Using SAS Software to Score a Test 265
                  Generalizing the Program for a Variable Number of Questions 268
            C.
            D.    Creating a Better Looking Table Using PROCTABULATE 270
            E.    A Complete Test Scoring and Item Analysis Program 273
             F.   Test Reliability 276
                  Interrater Reliability 277
            G. SAS Programming
Chapter 12 The SAS INPUT Statement 280
                Introduction 280
                List Directed Input: Data values separated by spaces 280
                Reading Comma-delimited Data 28 1
                Using INFORMATS with List Directed Data 282
                Column Input 283
                Pointers and Informats 284
                Reading More than One Line per Subject 285
                Changing the Order and Reading a Column More Than Once 286
                Informat Lists 286
                "Holding the Linen-Single- and Double-trailing 0 ' s 287
                Suppressing the Error Messages for Invalid Data 288
                Reading "Unstructured Data 289
Chapter 13 External Files: Reading and Writing Raw and System Files 298
           A.   Introduction 298
            B.  Data in the Program Itself 298
           C.   Reading ASCII Data from an External File 300
           D.   INFILE Options 302
           E.   Writing ASCII or Raw Data to an External File 304
            F.  Creating a Permanent SAS Data Set 305
           G.   Reading Permanent SAS Data Sets 307
           H.   How to Determine the Contents of a SAS Data Set 308
            I.  Permanent SAS Data Sets with Formats 309
            J.  Working with Large Data Sets 311
Chapter 14 Data Set Subsetting, Concatenating, Merging, and Updating 319
           A.   Infroduction 319
           B.  Subsetting 319
           C.   Combining Similar Data from Multiple SAS Data Sets 321
           D.  Combining Different Data from Multiple SAS Data Sets 321
           E.  "Table Look up" 324
            F. Updating a Master Data Set from an Update Data Set 326
Chapter 15 Working with Arrays 329
           A. Introduction 329
           B. Substituting One Value for Another for a Series of Variables 329
           C. Extending Example 1 to Convert All Numeric Values of 999 to
               Missing 331
           D. Converting the Value of N/A (Not Applicable) to a Character Missing
               Value 332
                Converting Heights and Weights from English to Metric Units 333
           E.
           F.  Temporary Arrays 334
           G.   Using a Temporary Array to Score a Test 336
           H.   Specifying Array Bounds 338
            I.  Temporary Arrays and Array Bounds 338
                Implicitly Subscripted Arrays 339
            J.
Chapter 16 Restructuring SAS Data Sets Using Arrays 343
           A. Introduction 343
           B. Creating a New Data Set with Several Observations per Subject from a
                Data Set with One Observation per Subject 343
           C. Another Example of Creating Multiple Observations from a Single
                Observation 345
           D. Going from One Observation per Subject to Many Observations per
                Subject Using Multi-dimensional Arrays 347
           E. Creating a Data Set with One Observation per Subject from a Data
                Set with Multiple Observations per Subject 348
            F, Creating a Data Set with One Observation per Subject from a Data
                Set with Multiple Observations per Subject Using a Multi-dimensional
                Array 350
Chapter 17 A Review of SAS Functions:
           Part I. Functions other than character functions 353
           A.   Introduction 353
           B.   Arithmetic and Mathematical Functions 353
           C.   Random Number Functions 355
           D.   Time and Date Functions 356
                The INPUT and PUT Functions: Converting Numerics to Character, and
           E.
                Character to Numeric Variables 358
            F. The LAG and DIF Functions 360
Chapter 18 A Review of SAS Functions:
           Part 11. Character Functions 364
           A.   Introduction 364
                How Lengths of Character Variables Are Set in a SAS Data Step 364
           B.
           C.   Working with Blanks 367
           D.   How to Remove Characters from a String 368
           E.   Character Data Verification 368
            F.  Substring Example 369
                Using the SUBSTR Function on the Left-hand Side of the Equal Sign
           G.
                370
           H.   Doing the Previous Example Another Way 371
            I.  Unpacking a String 372
                Parsing a String 373
            J.
                Locating the Position of One String within Another String 373
           K.
 xii  Contents
               L. Changing Lower Case to Upper Case and Vice Versa       374
               M. Substituting One Character for Another 375
               N. Substituting One Word for Another in a String 376
               0 . Concatenating (Joining) Strings 377
                P. Soundex Conversion 378
 Chapter 19 Seiected Programming Exampies 382
               A.   Introduction 382
               B.   Expressing Data Values as a Percentage of the Grand Mean 382
               C.  Expressing a Value as a Percentage of a Group Mean 384
               D.  Plotting Means with Error Bars 385
               E.   Using a Macro Variable to Save Coding T ~ m e 386
               F.  Computing Relative Frequencies 387
               G.  Computing Combined Frequencies on Different Variables 389
               H.  Computing a Moving Average 391
                1. Sorting within an Observation 392
                J. Computing CoefficientAlphs (or KR-20) a Data Step 393
                                                           in
Chapter 20 Syntax Exampies 395
                   Introduction 395                                  400
                                                     PROC LOGISTIC
                   PROC ANOVA 396                                  400
                                                     PROCMEANS
                   PROC APPEND 396                   PROC NPARl WAY 401
                   PROC CHART 396                    PROC PLOT 401
                   PROC CONTENTS 397                PROC PRINT 401
                   PROC CORR 397                                  402
                                                    PROCRANK
                   PROC DATASErj 397                PROCREC 402
                   PROC FACTOR 398                  PRW SORT 403
                   PROC FORMAT 398                  PROCTTEST 403
                   PROC FREQ 399                    PROC UNIVARIATE 403
                   PROCCLM 399
Problem Solutions 404
Index 439