欧元区的死亡之旅
By PAUL KRUGMAN
保罗·克鲁格曼
Is it possible to be both terrified and bored? That’s how I feel about the negotiations now under way over how to respond to Europe’s economic crisis, and I suspect other observers share the sentiment.
人会不会既感到恐惧又感到厌烦?我对当下如何应对欧洲经济危机的谈判,就有这种感受,我想其他观察家也会有同样的感受。
On one side, Europe’s situation is really, really scary: with countries that account for a third of the euro area’s economy now under speculative attack, the single currency’s very existence is being threatened — and a euro collapse could inflict vast damage on the world.
一方面,欧洲形势真真切切让人感到害怕:欧元区经济经济总量的三分之一正受到投机性资金的攻击,单一货币的生存正在受到威胁——欧元的崩溃将对整个世界造成范围广泛的破坏。
On the other side, European policy makers seem set to deliver more of the same. They’ll probably find a way to provide more credit to countries in trouble, which may or may not stave off imminent disaster. But they don’t seem at all ready to acknowledge a crucial fact — namely, that without more expansionary fiscal and monetary policies in Europe’s stronger economies, all of their rescue attempts will fail.
另一方面,欧洲决策者似乎决意要发出更多不变的信息。他们也许会找到向出现问题的国家提供更多信贷的途径,这种方法也许会,也许不会避开眼前的危机。然而,他们似乎根本不愿意接受这样一种事实——即经济实力较强的欧洲国家如果不实施进一步扩展性财政及货币政策,所有的援救努力都将归于失败。
The story so far: The introduction of the euro in 1999 led to a vast boom in lending to Europe’s peripheral economies, because investors believed (wrongly) that the shared currency made Greek or Spanish debt just as safe as German debt. Contrary to what you often hear, this lending boom wasn’t mostly financing profligate government spending — Spain and Ireland actually ran budget surpluses on the eve of the crisis, and had low levels of debt. Instead, the inflows of money mainly fueled huge booms in private spending, especially on housing.
我们看看到目前为止的形势:1999年欧元的引入导致了向欧洲周边国家贷款的一片繁荣,原因是投资人(错误地)相信,拥有共同货币会使希腊或西班牙债务与德国债务一样安全。与大家经常听到的正好相反,这种借贷的繁荣并没有给挥霍无度的ZF开支提供金融支持——危机前夕,西班牙和爱尔兰的财政预算出现盈余,债务水平也很低。相反,大量涌入的资金导致私人开支,特别是在房地产方面私人开支的巨大繁荣。
But when the lending boom abruptly ended, the result was both an economic and a fiscal crisis. Savage recessions drove down tax receipts, pushing budgets deep into the red; meanwhile, the cost of bank bailouts led to a sudden increase in public debt. And one result was a collapse of investor confidence in the peripheral nations’ bonds.
但是,借贷繁荣突然一结束,就造成了经济及财政危机。严峻的经济不景气使税收大幅下降,预算发生严重赤字;与此同时,救援银行的成本引起公共债务的骤然增加。结果,投资人对周边国家债权的信心出现崩塌。
So now what? Europe’s answer has been to demand harsh fiscal austerity, especially sharp cuts in public spending, from troubled debtors, meanwhile providing stopgap financing until private-investor confidence returns. Can this strategy work?
那么,现在该怎么办?欧洲的答案一直是要求实施严酷的财政紧缩政策,特别是要求出现问题的国家在公共开支方面大幅削减,同时,提供头痛医头,脚痛医脚的财政援救,直到私营部门恢复信心。这种战略能够起作用吗?
Not for Greece, which actually was fiscally profligate during the good years, and owes more than it can plausibly repay. Probably not for Ireland and Portugal, which for different reasons also have heavy debt burdens. But given a favorable external environment — specifically, a strong overall European economy with moderate inflation — Spain, which even now has relatively low debt, and Italy, which has a high level of debt but surprisingly small deficits, could possibly pull it off.
对于在好的年月里实际发生了财政挥霍,现在已经远远资不抵债的国家希腊,这种战略是不起作用的。因不同原因,葡萄牙和爱尔兰也存在沉重的债务负担,这种战略也是行不通的。但是,鉴于目前外部条件比较有利——特别是整个欧洲经济比较强劲,而通货膨胀较低——债务水平相对较低的西班牙,以及债务水平虽然很高但财政赤字特别低的意大利来说,则有可能从危机泥潭中拔出。
Unfortunately, European policy makers seem determined to deny those debtors the environment they need.
不幸的是,欧洲的决策者却似乎决意,拒绝向这些债权国提供他们所需要的环境。
Think of it this way: private demand in the debtor countries has plunged with the end of the debt-financed boom. Meanwhile, public-sector spending is also being sharply reduced by austerity programs. So where are jobs and growth supposed to come from? The answer has to be exports, mainly to other European countries.
可以这样想想:随着债务支持型经济繁荣的结束,债权国私营部门的需求已经大幅减少。同时,公共部门的开支却因实施的紧缩计划也在大幅削减。那么,就业及经济增长应该来自何方?回答只能是出口,主要是向其他欧洲国家出口。
But exports can’t boom if creditor countries are also implementing austerity policies, quite possibly pushing Europe as a whole back into recession.
然而,如果债权国同样实施紧缩政策,出口就无法实现增长,这样就可能将整个欧洲推入经济衰退中。
Also, the debtor nations need to cut prices and costs relative to creditor countries like Germany, which wouldn’t be too hard if Germany had 3 or 4 percent inflation, allowing the debtors to gain ground simply by having low or zero inflation. But the European Central Bank has a deflationary bias — it made a terrible mistake by raising interest rates in 2008 just as the financial crisis was gathering strength, and showed that it has learned nothing by repeating that mistake this year.
再者,相对于德国这样的债权国,债务国需要降低价格及成本,假如德国的通货膨胀率为3%到4%,只要让债务国通过较低甚至为零的通货膨胀率站稳脚跟,就不会太大困难。然而,欧洲央行却存在一种通货紧缩偏见——2008年金融危机加剧时,它提高了利率,犯下一个可怕的错误。今年,它又重复了这种错误,说明其根本上就没有汲取教训。
As a result, the market now expects very low inflation in Germany — around 1 percent over the next five years — which implies significant deflation in the debtor nations. This will both deepen their slumps and increase the real burden of their debts, more or less ensuring that all rescue efforts will fail.
结果,市场现在期望德国出现非常低的通货膨胀——今后5年内大约为1%,意味着债务国家将发生十分严重的通货紧缩。这样,一方面加深了经济衰退,同时增加了这些国家债务的真正负担,在某种程度上确保了救援努力的失败。
And I see no sign at all that European policy elites are ready to rethink their hard-money-and-austerity dogma.
而且,我根本看不到欧洲政策精英们愿意重新考虑他们的硬货币及紧缩教条的任何迹象。
Part of the problem may be that those policy elites have a selective historical memory. They love to talk about the German inflation of the early 1920s — a story that, as it happens, has no bearing on our current situation. Yet they almost never talk about a much more relevant example: the policies of Heinrich Brüning, Germany’s chancellor from 1930 to 1932, whose insistence on balancing budgets and preserving the gold standard made the Great Depression even worse in Germany than in the rest of Europe — setting the stage for you-know-what.
问题的部分原因可能是这些政策精英们的选择性历史记忆。他们喜欢谈论上世纪20年代初德国的通货膨胀——而这件事情恰巧与我们当前所处的情况毫无关系。然而,他们从来没有谈论过一个更为相关的例子:即1930年到1932年德国总理海因希里·布鲁宁采取的政策,这种政策坚持预算平衡,捍卫金本位制,结果使德国成有欧洲国家中“经济大萧条”影响最严重的国家——为大家都知道后来发生的事情搭建了平台。
Now, I don’t expect anything that bad to happen in 21st-century Europe. But there is a very wide gap between what the euro needs to survive and what European leaders are willing to do, or even talk about doing. And given that gap, it’s hard to find reasons for optimism.
在21世纪的欧洲,我并期望这样糟糕的事情发生。然而,欧元生存的需要与欧洲领导人愿意做的,或者甚至愿意谈论的事情之间,存在着巨大的差距。鉴于存在如此大的差距,我们几乎找不到任何乐观的理由。