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1.Introduction
As globalization progresses,exportingfirms face an increasingly complex environment and keen competition.Given an ever-changing environment,management's reaction to environmental threats in the forms of export adaptation strategies has been put forward as the key driver for superior export performance. According to the export marketing strategy literature(Leonidou,Katsikeas,&Samiee,2002), adaptation to export markets by adjusting product forms, promotion approaches, pricing policies and placing activities tends to enhance export performance. Despite the insights gained from strategic export marketing research, the role of rigid product adaptation decisions in accounting for export failure was virtually neglected. And,there remains very limited knowledge concerning organizational factors that may reduce rigid product adaptation decisions. In light of the above limitations, this inquiry focuses upon the issue of rigid product adaptation decisions in explaining low export performance.Based upon the threat-rigidity theory,the first purpose of the current research was to develop a model of factors pertaining to a firm's export coordination and process control mechanisms used to monitor its external operating environment that serve to reduce likelihood of adopting rigid product adaptation decisions.The second research purpose was to provide empirical substantiation of the link between rigid product adaptation decisions and export performance at an export venture level.The last research purpose set out to shed light on the moderating role of technological uncertainties over the rigidity-performance relationship.
2.Rigid product adaptation decisions and export performance Out of the many strategic marketing variables examined in the export marketing literature,product is the element of marketing strategy that has attracted the most research attention(Leonidou et al.,2002).Theoretically,a product adaptation strategy is driven by the need for three types of flexibility:operational,tactical,and strategic (Sholam,1996).Whereas operational flexibility is a short-term,day-to-day ability dealing with raw material shortage or equipment failure (Carlsson,1989),tactical flexibility pertains to changes in product design and product mix in response to fluctuation in demand or market imperfection(Hart,1940;Stigler,1939),strategic flexibility involves the creation,maintenance,and realization of options for a firm's future(Bowman&Hurry,1993;Buckley,1997;Johnson,Lee, Saini,&Grohmann,2003).Three different kinds of benefits can be derived from flexibility. Operational flexibility enables a firm to cut time and cost in its responses reactively(Sethi&Sethi,1990).Tactical flexibility enables a firm to set different prices in various markets and captures the benefit of price discrimination practically(Sholam, 1996).Furthermore,by maintaining liquid resources and options, strategic flexibility enables a firm to predict new consumer needs and gains proactively as a result of developing additional creative,innovative products for its domestic as well as international markets (Matthyssens,Pauwels,&Vandenbempt,2005).It is not surprising that flexibility in the form of product adaptation was correlated with superior export performance across all time frames and geographic contexts in the extant empirical studies(Leonidou et al.,2002).Given the overwhelming evidence that product adaptations can improve export sales performance,it is logical to expect that rigid product adaptation decisions would account for a low level of export performance.
However,strategic marketing management theorists(Grewal&Tansuhaj,2001)have notable reservation over the role of strategic flexibility in enhancing firm performance.Empirically,the performance effect of strategic flexibility was supported in a technologically and competitively uncertain market environment,but was not supported in a stable market environment(Grewal&Tansuhaj, 2001).This implies that the performance effect of strategic flexibility tends to depend on type and level of market uncertainties faced by the firm.The varying performance effect of strategic flexibility reinforces the strategic co-alignment principle underlying the export strategic marketing literature whereby a product adaptation strategy is called for only when the export market under examination is sufficiently dissimilar to the home market(Cavusgil&Zou,1994).In other words,a key issue determining performance effect of rigidity is the source of threat(Staw,Sandelands,&Dutton,1981).When the environment has changed radically,well-learned,dominant rigid responses are inappropriate under new conditions.In contrast,when a threat does not involve major environmental change,rigidity in response may not be dysfunctional.This study extends the export marketing strategy literature by hypothesizing that:
H1.The negative effect of rigid product adaptation decisions on export performance is stronger as technological uncertainty increases.
3.Factors that reduce rigid product adaptation decisions A theoretical model of factors that reduce rigid product adaptation decisions is presented in Fig.1.The present model provides counterarguments to the original threat-rigidity thesis(Staw et al.,1981)which proposed that in the face of environmental threats,decision makers have a tendency to rely on well-learnt,dominant,rigid responses because environmental threats have brought along restriction of information and constriction of control in their decision-making processes.According to Staw et al.(1981),“a major effect of threat appears to be a mechanistic shift(Burns&Stalker,1961)in which there is increased centralization of authority,more extensive formalization,and standardization of procedures….The shift to a more rigid structure seems to be due to decision makers'attempts to enhance control and coordination so as to insure that organizational members act in a concerted way in meeting a threat situation”.In contrast to“real”threats that involve widely visible and immediate cost or loss(such as resource scarcity,intensified competition,or reduction in market size),another class of threat,however,exists namely latent threat(Drazin&Sandelands,1992).Latent threat is sufficiently distant in time-future to allow for short-term adaptation and longer-term learning and is deliberately used by top management to alarm members about radical environmental threats.Flexible decision-making theorists(Barnett&Pratt,2000;Butler,1991;Eisenhardt,1989;March,1988;Sharfman&Dean,1997)proposed that a proper response to latent threat involves opening communication flows and decentralizing control processes and the result is greater organizational flexibility and long-term viability.In keeping with the flexibility concept,this study posits that probability of rigid product adaptation decisions can be reduced by expanding coordination and control mechanisms.
Within the current research domain area of export marketing,responsive export behavior as a behavioral component of export market orientation has been reported to have a powerful effect on export performance(Murray,Guo,Kotabe,&Zhou,2007).In order to address the increasing cross-functional information-processing requirements that are demanded for responsive export behavior,a corresponding increase is called for the information-processing capability in the design of export coordination and control mechanisms(Murray et al.,2007).The following hypotheses were developed to shed light on export coordination and process control as factors that reduce rigid product adaptation decisions.

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Export coordination mechanism refers to the interaction between the exporting unit and other business functions(Diamantopoulos& Cadogan,1996).When export coordination is high,communication patterns between exporting and others within the firm are functional,cooperation is the norm,disruptive confiict is rare,and units share work-related goals(Cadogan,Diamantopoulos,&de Mortanges, 1999).Empirically it was observed that export coordination fosters responsive export behavior among business firms in Hong Kong,New Zealand,Finland,and the United States(Cadogan,Diamantopoulos,& Siguaw,2002;Cadogan,Cui,Morgan,&Story,2006).As export coordination fosters a desire for export success across functions within the firm,enables the exporting units to leverage appropriate resources within the business,and hence should reduce likelihood of making rigid product adaptation decision,it is therefore hypothesized in this study that:

H2.The use of export coordination mechanisms reduces the likelihood of rigid product adaptation decisions.

Process control mechanism represents an active and involved management(Munro&Beamish,1987)whereby the principals dictate the effort agents need to provide(such as the foreign distributor's effort over selling procedures,promotional practices,new product introduction activities and other day-to-day marketing actions)in order to achieve the firm's goal.According to Aulakh and Gencturk(2000),as the principals assume most of the risk in process-controlled relationships,agents are likely to be willing to adjust in light of changing circumstances.It is worthwhile noting that the success of process control depends not only on the manufacturer's ability to correctly specify the marketing transformation process in foreign markets(Anderson&Oliver,1987),but also on the additional support obtained by the manufacturer as a result of the effort it exerts to influence its partner(Anderson,Lodish,&Weitz,1987).Empirical support for the effectiveness of a manufacturer's process control is provided by Aulakh and Gencturk(2000)finding that the principal's use of process control enhances the foreign partner's willingness to adjust the relationship due to unforeseen contingencies.Thus it is hypothesized here that:

H3.The use of process control reduces the likelihood of rigid product adaptation decisions.



4.Research methodology

4.1.The sample

The data for this study were collected by a survey of manufacturing firms that have production facilities set up in China,and that sell their outputs to overseas countries.This study used the Directory of Chinese Export Commodities Fair Exhibitors as its sampling frame since the directory is a formal reference book authorized by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation of the People's Republic of China.From this directory,a systematic random sample of 1000firms was drawn.In order to enhance respondent involvement and response rate,the best practices for maximizing responses in a survey suggested by Dillman(2000)were followed.Each firm was contacted by mail to solicit their cooperation in participating in this study.A copy of the survey instrument was provided via personal delivery to each of the 750 exporting firms that indicated their willingness to participate in the study.Out of the 750 exporting firms that agreed to complete the questionnaire,a final total of 389 exportingf irms fully completed the questionnaires resulting in a response rate of 51.9%.The response rate is comparable to the rates reported in other studies involving exporting firms(Bodur,1994;Cavusgil&Zou,1994;Kaynak&Wellington,1993).Of the remaining companies,they declined to take part in the survey due to an excessive workload,absence of the responsible manager,or a company policy prohibiting the disclosure of business information.In order to determine whether the characteristics of the respondents differ from those of“non-respondents”,a sample of 50 nonrespondents was contacted by phone to obtain the structural characteristics of their firms.Data analysis showed that the characteristics of non-respondents like firm size,international experience and ownership type did not differ significantly from those of respondents.

The final usable sample was comprised of 389 exporting manufacturers.The sample consisted of exporting manufacturers coming from the following six industrial sectors:textile and garments (26.0%),electrical and electronic appliances(23.4%),machinery and precision equipment(17.0%),food items(15.4%),toys and crafts (10.8%),and drugs and medical equipment(7.5%).About two-third of the firms used in the present sample were private enterprises, consisting of private enterprises with domestic funding(43.2%)and private enterprises with foreign funding(18.3%),whereas one-third (33.7%)of the firms were state-owned enterprises.A large majority (84.1%)of firms in this sample had over 5 years of international experience.The present sample covers diverse respondent firms coming from different industry,ownership,and international experience background.The present study's sample characteristics serve to extend the generalizability of its resultant findings to multiple industries,ownership types,and internationalization stages.

4.2.The instrument

The survey instrument used for this study was developed through a thorough review of the export marketing literatures.It takes the form of a structured questionnaire consisting of three major parts:the  first part collected information on the firm's background characteristics and adaptation strategies used;the second part referred to the exporting unit's structural design in terms of intra-firm coordination mechanisms used to work with other business functions,and interfirm control mechanisms exercised to monitor foreign agents'behavior;and the last part focused on the firm's export performance. As the scales originated in the United States,special steps were taken to safeguard translation equivalence.To establish translation equivalence(Douglas&Craig,1983),the original instrument was translated to the target language(Chinese)by a bilingual translator and backtranslated to the original language(English)by another bilingual translator.Observed discrepancies that indicated problems with the translation equivalence(Berry,1980)were then resolved before proceeding with the fieldwork.In addition,prior to the commencement of the full-scale study,the questionnaire was administered to ten exporting firms in China through personal interviews.This pretesting step ensured that ambiguity of wording was minimized.Data were collected personally from the manager in the company primarily responsible for dealing with foreign customers.In order to minimize bias resulting from time pressures in answering the questionnaire,a two-stage approach was adopted for data gathering: the first stage was comprised of in-depth interviews with key respondents identified and was confined to the parts of the questionnaire dealing with information on the firm's background and export adaptation strategies.In the second stage,each respondent export manufacturer was instructed to identify a specific agent,and answer the rest of the questionnaire instrument with reference to the specified agent in mind.The questionnaire was then left for selfadministered completion on the part of the respondent at a time that she/he found most convenient.Completed questionnaires were collected from the respondent during a subsequent appointment. Each questionnaire was checked for completeness and legibility,and in some cases certain clarifications were required from the respondents.

4.3.Measures and psychometric properties

Multiple-item scales were used to operationalize most of the variables.The measures used for the constructs in the study are provided in Appendix A.

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4.3.1.Export coordination mechanisms

The current research adopted selective items from scales developed by Cadogan et al.(1999)to assess export coordination.Export coordination is measured with afive-point likert scale which capture the extent to which exporting unit's employees interact with other functional departments by using inter-departmental task forces in pursuing a common goal,making use of computing capabilities to closely coordinating post-sales problems and services in export markets,and resolving confiicts through cross-functional communication and group problem-solving.

4.3.2.Export process control mechanisms

This study adapted scales used by Bello and Gilliland(1997)to measure process controls.Process control is measured with afive-point Likert scale which captures the degree to which a principalfirm specifies and monitors the procedures used by its foreign agents in terms of the agent's selling procedures,promotional practices,and product introduction activities(Nevin,1995).

4.3.3.Rigid product adaptation decisions

Rigidity/fiexibility in decision making processes was viewed as a continuous variable under the threat-rigidity thesis(Harrington, Lemak,&Kendall,2002).The thesis holds that“a threat to the vital interest of an entity,be it an individual,group,or organization,will lead to forms of rigidity”(Staw et al.,1981,p.502)and the thesis further proposes that rigidity may be either adaptive or maladaptive.Based on this conceptualization,afive-item scale was developed to capture a principalfirm's perception of the extent of adaptation made in their export product strategies in the case of changed circumstances.Specifically,respondents were asked to rate the degree of adaptation pertaining to its product positioning,promotion approaches,and sales support when marketing to different foreign markets.

4.3.4.Export venture performance

This study adapted some global measures(Zou,Taylor,&Osland,1997)refiecting the overall satisfaction with an export venture.Export venture performance is measured by three indicators:achieving satisfactory results,meeting company expectations,and being perceived as a great success.

In keeping with convention that treats the above established measures:export coordination(Cadogan et al.,1999,2002,2006;Cadogan,Paul,Salminen,Puumalainen,&Sundqvist,2001),process control(Bello&Gilliland,1997;Gencturk and Aulakh,1995;Nevin,1995),and product adaptation decisions(Cavusgil&Zou,1994; Sholam,1996)as reflective scales,this study intended to use them as reflective measures.Nonetheless,the authors are aware that the observed variables can be interpreted as cause or causal indicators of the latent variables,and these measures may be regarded as formative.The ways to deal with the limitations of this approach would be provided in the limitations and future research directions session.

To assess the measurement properties of the export coordination, process control,rigid product adaptation decisions,and export venture performance variables,the items across the four scales were subjected to a confirmatory factor analysis using the EQS statistical program.A four-factor model was run and theflt assessed through multiple criteria.As a badness offit indicator,the chi-square value of 64.09(with 50 degrees of freedom)results in a value of 1.28 chi-square/degree of freedom that is lesser than 3.0 threshold indicating satisfactory modelfit(Gefen,Straub,&Boudreau,2000). The following goodness offit indices were evaluated and they all point to an adequate fit of the four-factor measurement model:Goodness-of- t(GFI)Index=0.97;Normed Fit Index(NFI)=0.97;Comparative Fit Index(CFI)=0.99;Root Mean Square(RMSEA)=0.027.Thefinal measurement results for the scales together with a correlation matrix are shown in Table 1.Overall,the results indicate that the scales perform well.Specifically,all of the construct composite reliabilities in the model are above the recommended threshold of.80(Nunnally,1978),indicating items loading onto respective constructs are measuring the same latent variables.In addition,all the average variance extracted(AVE)scores of constructs in the model are higher than the recommended threshold of.50 (Bagozzi&Yi,1988),providing further evidence of convergent validity.Furthermore,after calculating the AVE of latent variables, they were compared to squared correlations between latent variables and were found to be much higher than the squared correlations, suggesting high discriminant validity of each construct from other constructs(Fornell&Larcker,1981).In conclusion,the measurement models possess good psychometric properties.All of the indices evaluating convergent validity and discriminant validity are above the acceptable levels.Furthermore,the unidimensionality of all constructs are supported by CFA results.

To test for common method bias,this study employed Harman's one-factor test(Malhotra,Patil,&Kim,2007).The rationale for this test is that if common method variance poses a serious threat to the analysis and interpretation of the data,a single latent factor would account for all manifest variables(Podsakoff&Organ,1986).A worse fit for the one-factor model would suggest that common method variance does not pose a serious threat.In this study,the one-factor model yielded a chi-square=1071.42 with degree of freedom=54,compared with the chi-square=64.09 with degree of freedom=50 for the proposed model.Thefit is considerably worse for the unidimensional model,suggesting that common method bias is not a serious threat in the study.




5.Statistical analyses

Model testing was undertaken using LISERL and the maximum likelihood(ML)estimation procedure.Table 2 provides the path estimates and t-values for the structural model.This study also follows Ping(1995)guidelines for the evaluation of structural models with interaction terms.Given the independent variable,dependent variable and moderator variables in this study are continuous measurement scales in nature,the effective method for the analysis of statistical interaction is to use product term(Jaccard&Wan,1995).However,the introduction of nonlinear product term is problematic because it causes the collinearity in the regression.According to Little, Bovaird,and Widaman(2006),the mean centering and residual centering are the main two technological methods to reduce the collinearity in structural equation modeling with product interaction effect.Based upon the comparison of SEM results,these researchers concluded that the residual centering has potential advantages over mean centering to completely decrease the collinearity without complicated constraints on estimation.Thus the residual centering technology is adopted in this study to generate the product term for the test of the interaction effect of environment on the path from rigid product adaptation decisions to export venture performance.After multiplying the environment item with three items of rigid product adaptation decision,three indicators for the product term were created.Then the orthogonalizing procedure is pursued: each indicator is regressed onto its respectivefirst-order constituent terms and the residual of this regression is then saved and subsequently used to represent the interaction effect.The model with the product term is analyzed in LISREL.

As shown in Fig.2,the coefficient(if 0.49)between the product term and export venture performance is significant at 0.05 with t-value=2.03.

This means that when the technological uncertainty increases one unit, rigid product adaptation decision's negative influence on export venture performance will be strengthened by 0.49.Hypothesis H1 is supported since the‘technological uncertainty-rigid product adaptation decisions’interaction term is negative and significant(γ=.49,pb.05).This finding shows that the negative effect of rigid product adaptation decisions on export performance is stronger as technological uncertainty increases.

Hypothesis H2 is supported since export coordination returns a significant negative relationship with rigid product adaptation decisions(γ=?.21,p b.000).This current finding works complementarily with previous research findings(Cadogan et al.,1999,2001, 2002,2006)in that while export coordination fosters responsive export market oriented behavior,it is not surprising to find that an exporting unit's coordination with other business functions serves to reduce rigid product adaptation decisions in this study.

Hypothesis H3 is supported(γ=?.35,p b.000)demonstrating that export process control has a very powerful negative effect on rigid product adaptation decisions.In line with prior expectations,an exporting firm's time and effort over monitoring foreign distributors tends to build up the information processing capacity very much needed for responsive export behavior and hence reduces rigid product adaptation decisions.

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6.Discussion and managerial implications

Based on the organizational flexibility angle,this study identified two critical factors that reduce rigid product adaptation decisions for exporting firms consisting of:export coordination and process control mechanisms.It also extended the export marketing strategy literature by taking into account the contingency effect of environmental uncertainty when examining the adverse performance effect of rigid product adaptation decisions.The empirical evidence showed that export venture performance was adversely affected by rigid product adaptation decisions,and such adverse effect got stronger as technological uncertainty increased.Exporting firms are advised to reduce the likelihood of making rigid product adaptation decisions in two ways:1)designing organizational structure to ensure sufficient coordination between the exporting department and other business functions within thefirm when planning and solving problems for different export markets,and 2)adopting process control to ensure active involvement of foreign agents and distributors when monitoring competitors'actions and coming up with responsive decisions for different export markets.

Whereas the threat-rigidity thesis suggests that constriction of control results in the adoption of dominant,rigid responses,its antithesis postulates that expansion of control fosters flexible responses.

This study provided empirical support to the threat-flexibility framework(Barnett&Pratt,2000).Specifically,the present results support the“export market orientation view”that the adoption of coordinating structures could integrate effort between exporting departments and other business functions to ensure responsive export behavior(Cadogan et al.,2006).Through fostering shared values and aligned goals,a lack of dysfunctional conflicts and poor communication patterns between functional units,export coordination removes factors detrimental to the development of market-oriented export information flows and export responsive behavior, and hence reduces rigid product adaptation decisions.This implies that the task facing exporting manufacturers based in China is to ensure smooth relationships between exporting and other business functions.Export manufacturers can foster export coordination through careful management of inter-functional interactions (Menon,Jaworski,&Kohli,1997;Morgan&Piercy,1998).

The present results also reinforce the“active and involved management view”that using process-based behavioral control could gain foreign partners'additional support needed to adjust the relationship due to unforeseen contingencies.As expected,process control has a powerful effect in reducing rigid product adaptation decisions.Since both exporters and autonomous foreign-based agents strive for operational integration without legal ownership,both principals and foreign agents may adopt an open attitude towards formal monitoring.By appealing to the principal's expertise over its product policies and procedures,foreign agents may accept behavioral specification from the principal on the grounds of objective knowledge.Besides,by relieving foreign agents from short-term economic accountability,process controls reassure foreign agents and make behavioral guidelines from the principals acceptable to these geographically separated agents on economic ground.By implication, process control could be selected as the appropriate control mechanism as principals'interventions to improve foreign partners ability as well as willingness to explore and initiate new policies that serve to reduce rigid product adaptation decisions.

The general threat-rigidity thesis holds that rigidity may be either adaptive or maladaptive,and it further argues that these threatrigidity effects can be organizationally maladaptive and dysfunctional when adversity from a radical change in environment makes dominant,well-learnt,rigid responses inappropriate under the new situation.The current findings give strong support to the contingency view that the adverse performance effect of rigid product adaptation decisions was particularly strong when operating under very high technological uncertainty.These results reinforce the assertion of the important role of strategic flexibility over business performance when the firm operates in highly uncertain environments full of technological risks.



7.Limitations and future research directions

The implication of this study should be seen within the context of its limitations that could also provide the basis for directing future research.First,based upon the threat-rigidity thesis,this study examined the effect of a subset of antecedents on rigid product adaptation decisions,namely coordination and control mechanisms.

Future attempts should be made to identify additional predictors of rigidity/flexibility over adaptation decisions.Specifically,Aulakh and Gencturk(2000)call for additional work on the conceptualization and operationalization of informal control mechanisms such as social control,and suggest that its inclusion in future research may be instrumental in surfacing an important dimension of effort to reduce rigidity and hence facilitate flexibility in inter-as well as intraorganizational exchanges.

Second,as the original threat-rigidity thesis(Staw et al.,1981) suggests that the“interpretation of the threatening situation”could be an important moderating variable between threat and rigidity,the effect of control over rigid decision-making may depend upon the individual attribution of the locus of events as determined internally by one's own behavior versus external powerful entities.Specifically, future studies are encouraged to examine whether a foreign agent's response to a threat attributed to external(or internal)sources and based upon a belief that the agent can(or cannot)overcome the threatening situation,would increase(or decrease)group cohesive- ness,leadership support,and pressure for conformity,and thus leading to rigid(or flexible)product adaptation decisions.Additional research efforts are needed to examine the ways in which the link between various control mechanisms and rigid exported offerings is moderated by locus of control and other normative aspects of an institutional environment such as values,beliefs and assumptions that are socially shared and are carried by individuals(Chelariu,Bello,& Gilliland,2006).

Third,even though the present result reinforced the contingency effect of technological uncertain environment on the strategic flexibility-performance relationship as reported previously(Grewal &Tansuhaj,2001),this study used only a single-item measure to tap into the construct of technological uncertainty,and created the corresponding product term that moderate the rigid product adaptation-export performance relationship.The choice of using a single-item measure in this study served to highlight the specific moderating effect of technological uncertainty in terms of the intensity of R&D effort in the industry.Nonetheless,future studies might consider using factors representing the underlying dimensions of environmental uncertainty including:unpredictability,instability, complexity of market or technological development(Bstieler&Gross, 2003),when examining these constructs'contingency effect on the rigidity-performance relationship.

Finally,although the present measurement approach reflects the conventional wisdom of unidimensional classical test model(Bollen& Lennox,1991),its assumption that the observed variables are reflective/effect indicators of the underlying latent constructs may not be valid.For example,export process control's measure is formed as a combination of time and effort spent on monitoring channel activities(e.g.selling,promotion,and new product introduction activities)in the capacity of a supplier,and taking any one of these actions would result in an increase(decrease)in export process control.Similarly,export coordination's measure is constituted of a combination of diverse organizational structures(e.g.cross-functional teams,group-based communication,planning,and problem-solving processes)used to facilitate interaction between exporting department and other business functions,and adopting any one of these structures will result in increase(decrease)in export coordination.

Likewise,in rigid product adaptation decision's measure,there is no compelling rationale to expect that an increase(decrease)in product adaptation would be reflected in the promotion,distribution,and pricing activities involved.Thus,in all three cases,the assumption of a reflective measurement model is questionable.The choice between a formative and a reflective specification should primarily be based on theoretical consideration regarding the causal priority between the indicators and the latent variable involved(Diamantopoulos& Winklhofer,2001).Inspection of the items constituting the scales in question reveals that the causal priority runs from the indicators to the constructs,not the other way round.Future research might better capture these specific constructs:export coordination,process control,and rigid product adaptation decision(currently operationalized by means of reflective indicators)from a formative perspective.

In conclusion,while this study provides theoretical and practical insight into the antecedents and outcomes of rigid product adaptation decisions,future studies need to extend the study and its implications to a large sample and different business/country settings to reinforce confidence in the generalizability of the findings.

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